racial profiling definition oxford

In order to have a meaningful and effective consideration of the topic, we need a precise, politically neutral definition. googletag.cmd.push(function() { * free googletag.cmd.push(function() { { bidder: 'onemobile', params: { dcn: '8a9690ab01717182962182bb7e310013', pos: 'old_btmslot_mobile_flex' }}, Define racial profiling. { bidder: 'onemobile', params: { dcn: '8a969411017171829a5c82bb7c220017', pos: 'old_topslot_728x90' }}, Bernard Harcourt’s Against Prediction: Profiling, Policing, and Punishing in an Actuarial Age (2007) is in many ways a counterpoint—and a compelling one—to Schauer’s arguments for the rationality of profiling. googletag.pubads().addEventListener('slotRenderEnded', function(event) { if (!event.isEmpty && event.slot.renderCallback) { event.slot.renderCallback(event); } }); You shout at both to stop, but they keep running, in different directions, away from you. Accordingly, in the next chapter I will describe evidence that indicates that racial profiling has occurred in various locations throughout the United States in recent years. I was first exposed to it at a conference on racial bias in policing, where Professor Banks used it most effectively in his presentation. In fact, it is not my intention to argue that racial discrimination is unusually pervasive in criminal justice. Maybe part of you felt the Black guy was more likely to be the assailant. Brian Withrow’s (2006) Racial Profiling: From Rhetoric to Reason is a thorough and highly accessible description of police practices, legal context, This does not make Banks’s definition wrong but only more narrow. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. { bidder: 'openx', params: { unit: '539971143', delDomain: 'idm-d.openx.net' }}, free: false (p.9) Some of the research and analysis discussed in this book will challenge the standard assumptions about increased public safety. dictCodesArr["practical-english-usage"] = { First of all, in the typical experiment, only half the sample would get the minority defendant; the other half would get a White defendant. }] They typically expand the topic beyond race to ethnicity, national origin, and sometimes religion, and they hold that racial profiling involves the use of these factors as a basis for criminal suspicion and/or police behavior. var pbMobileHrSlots = [ Nevertheless, it leads to discrimination. description : 'Search Oxford Collocations Dictionary', iasLog("criterion : old_ei = racial-profiling"); Even if we accept Wilson’s estimate, it is problematic to apply arrest rates for violent crimes, which are responded to based primarily on specific reports, to crimes, like drug possession, that are typically identified through officer-initiated stops. 'siteSpeedSampleRate': 10 { bidder: 'ix', params: { siteId: '220442', size: [300, 50] }}, See Alschuler (2002), Banks (2001, 2003), Gould and Mastrofski (2004), Harcourt (2007), Harris (2002a), and Withrow (2006) for more thorough and nuanced legal analyses, and Chapter 7 of this book for further discussion. 'min': 0, dictCodesArr["american_english"] = { Furthermore, a system wherein people were stopped solely on the basis of race would reasonably be defined not as racial profiling so much as full-blown racial oppression. However, despite the title, it includes little discussion of the psychology of stereotyping. { bidder: 'criteo', params: { networkId: 7100, publisherSubId: 'old_topslot' }}]}, By continuing to use our website, you are agreeing to our use of cookies. Reasonable people can and do disagree over whether racial profiling is legal, fair, ethical, and effective. Fridell, Lunney, Diamond, & Kubu, 2001, p. 3. I deliberately constrain the definition to law enforcers. iasLog("criterion : old_pr = free"); { bidder: 'appnexus', params: { placementId: '12529673' }}, Do you pull it over? { bidder: 'triplelift', params: { inventoryCode: 'Oxford_HDX' }}, The BJS reports that the percentage of White and Black adults under correctional supervision (jail, prison, parole, or probation) went from 1.4% of Whites and 5.7% of Blacks in 1986 to 2% of Whites and 9% of Blacks in 1997 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1998). It seeks to describe the nature of racial profiling, primarily in terms of human psychology. var pbAdUnits = getPrebidSlots(curResolution); No doubt, racial disproportions in criminal sanctions can result from biases throughout the criminal justice process—including decisions to charge, aggressively prosecute, convict, sentence, parole, and so forth. Police, being human beings with normal psychology, are likely subject to similar biases. (Section 2.6). var googletag = googletag || {}; If subsequent law enforcement is based on these skewed perceptions, this can actually undermine the efficiency and effectiveness of policing. Note: For all years but 1998, the BJS provided statistics only for those serving sentences of 1 year or more. For example, a young black man may experience racial profiling on the basis of stereotypes about his age, colour and gender. In conclusion, African Americans are arrested and incarcerated for drug crimes at an alarming rate that is dramatically greater than that for other racial Indeed, there is legitimate reason for concern about racial profiling, to the extent that it increases the likelihood that disproportionate numbers of minorities will enter the criminal justice system. David Harris’s groundbreaking book (2002a) provides an excellent historical and legal analysis while also putting a human face on the targets of racial profiling. { bidder: 'triplelift', params: { inventoryCode: 'Oxford_Billboard' }}, { bidder: 'triplelift', params: { inventoryCode: 'Oxford_MidArticle' }}, Studies showing that disparities persist even after statistically controlling for other factors, such as socioeconomic differences, crime severity, and criminal history, allow us to make a fairly strong inference of bias. In fact, he was a 41-year-old Black man, John Allen Muhammad, working with a teenage accomplice, Lee Boyd Malvo, also Black. Source: The Oxford Encyclopedia of Latinos and Latinas in the United States Author(s): Kevin R. Johnson. Finally, it is important to bear in mind that there are indicators of suspicion that may be correlated with race or ethnicity but that still bear an instrumental connection to the crime of interest. Building on that, as well as some assessment of the utility of racial profiling, we then turn to policy analysis, reviewing the extant laws and regulations and considering new alternatives. userIds: [{ (p.10) This is then used to narrow the pool of potential suspects. 'min': 8.50, However, survey research on illicit drug use as one indicator of rates of drug law violations indicates that Blacks are not much more likely than others to break drug laws. Definition of racial-profiling noun in Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. /*practical-english-usage DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195370409.003.0001, Chapter 4 Unintentional Causes of Profiling, Chapter 5 The Effects of Racial Profiling, Suspect Race: Causes and Consequences of Racial Profiling, Chapter 4 Unintentional Causes of Profiling, Chapter 5 The Effects of Racial Profiling, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ (2008), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008. Racial profiling is irrational, unjust, and unproductive, but one thing it is not is un-American. Similarly, Albert Alschuler’s (2002) extensive constitutional analysis of racial profiling offers a thorough and thoughtful discussion of relevant law as well as insights regarding the identification and impact of profiling, but it does not discuss cognitive causes. Keywords: This kind of stereotype-based judgment and decision-making is, although generally and rightly disdained, totally normal human cognition. * false || false*/ Law professor Bernard Harcourt, who has carefully analyzed racial profiling as one form of “actuarial” practices in criminal justice (Harcourt, 2007), defines it as “the practice of stopping and searching minority motorists at a rate in excess of their representation on the road based on the assumption that they are more likely to be transporting drug contraband” (Harcourt, 2004, p. 1276, n. 2). Do you follow them in or continue on your previous course? filter: 'include' /*schulwoerterbuch_German-English { bidder: 'pubmatic', params: { publisherId: '158679', adSlot: 'old_leftslot' }}, {code: 'ad_leftslot_a', pubstack: { adUnitName: 'old_leftslot', adUnitPath: '/23202586/old_leftslot' }, mediaTypes: { banner: { sizes: [[160, 600]] } }, iasLog("criterion : old_l = en-us"); { bidder: 'triplelift', params: { inventoryCode: 'Oxford_Billboard' }}, { bidder: 'triplelift', params: { inventoryCode: 'Oxford_SR' }}, Racial profiling, however, is not limited only to an individual's ethnicity or race, but can also be based on the individual's religion, or national origin. This pattern is reflected in the trends over time for incarceration in state and federal prisons presented in Figure 1.1. One might be tempted to conclude that the leveling off of these trends indicates an end to bias, but this would be a mistake. Racial profiling is most commonly associated with drug law enforcement, and with regard to drug arrests it is harder to find baseline statistics of offending rates against which to compare arrest, prosecution, conviction, and incarceration rates. As suspect descriptions get simpler (e.g., “young, Black male”), they start to resemble profiles. }; Additionally, such political disenfranchisement, coupled with the economic hardships of high rates of incarceration, and the disturbances to family and community structure, are no doubt demoralizing. { bidder: 'triplelift', params: { inventoryCode: 'Oxford_MidArticle' }}, The consideration of race, ethnicity, or national origin by an officer of the law in deciding when and how to intervene in an enforcement capacity. { bidder: 'onemobile', params: { dcn: '8a969411017171829a5c82bb7c220017', pos: 'old_btmslot_300x250' }}, especially of African Americans, that gives many analysts, policymakers, and citizens cause for concern about racial profiling. { bidder: 'onemobile', params: { dcn: '8a969411017171829a5c82bb7c220017', pos: 'old_leftslot_160x600' }}, Some people, in fact, appear to use it to describe any racial stereotyping or discrimination at all. For Latinos it would be 17.2%, and for African Americans, 32.2% (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2003). iframe: { { bidder: 'appnexus', params: { placementId: '12529711' }}, free: false iasLog("setting page_url: - " + pageUrlSetting); racial profiling synonyms, racial profiling pronunciation, racial profiling translation, English dictionary definition of racial profiling. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. var pbjs = pbjs || {}; Rather, it typically relies on “pretexts”—ostensible violations or suspicious behaviors. More common examples of racial profiling have to do with traffic stops, which will be discussed extensively in Chapter 2. So, statistical analyses clearly indicate that, at least in many places, times, and instances, racial bias exists in criminal justice. }); But some of the heat that the term generates may be due to the looseness with which it is defined and used. That same year, a drug offense was the most serious offense for 51% of federal prisoners (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2011b). But racial profiling can, and no doubt does, also take a more informal form. Despite its technical origins, it is now a politically volatile term that tends to elicit indignation and defensiveness. profiling n noun: Refers to person, place, thing, quality, etc. They infer race and ethnicity based on physical characteristics, and they may be wrong. In this regard, the statistics are troubling. For now it should be noted that experimental research indicates that, all else being equal, Whites tend to be more punitive toward minorities. pbjs.que = pbjs.que || []; },{ var pbHdSlots = [ In this sense, we will discuss racial profiling as stemming from both formal, official descriptions (profiles) of high-probability perpetrators and informal personal beliefs of individual officials. Nevertheless, much of this research is “correlational,” meaning that racial disparities cannot be proved to dfpSlots['leftslot_a'] = googletag.defineSlot('/23202586/old_leftslot', [[160, 600]], 'ad_leftslot_a').defineSizeMapping(mapping_leftslot_a).setTargeting('sri', '0').setTargeting('vp', 'top').setTargeting('hp', 'left').addService(googletag.pubads()); Racial profiling can be an overt strategy of law enforcement or subtle and unconscious. kinds because their causes are very different, and, accordingly, so should policies designed to address them. As a result, as the U.S. { bidder: 'triplelift', params: { inventoryCode: 'Oxford_MidArticle' }}, Because, in the experiments, all else is held equal, we can isolate the effect of defendant race and conclude that it (or, more precisely, the reaction it evokes) causes the disparate outcome. One prominent exception is New Jersey v. Pedro Soto et al. Perhaps the overrepresentation of Blacks (including Black youth) among those arrested has more to do with drug dealing and related offenses like weapons possession, which could be higher among Blacks. In upstate New York in 1992, Oneonta police questioned virtually every young Black man in town in one investigation. (p.11). The Oxford Handbook of Criminology. Racial profiling in America. Furthermore, it is important that racial bias (meaning, stereotypes and attitudes) is a significant cause, although not necessarily the sole cause, of racial disparities in criminal justice. { bidder: 'ix', params: { siteId: '220624', size: [300, 50] }}, (p.7) An obvious candidate for what could explain these disparities would be higher rates of crime among African Americans. provides a concrete criterion—stops disproportional to presence—rather than relying merely on the presumption of a way of thinking on the part of law officers. Profiling definition is - the act or process of extrapolating information about a person based on known traits or tendencies; specifically : the act of suspecting or targeting a person on the basis of observed characteristics or behavior. Figure 1.1 Percentage of Black and White American men (aged 18 to 64) serving sentences of 1 year or more in state or federal prison, 1980 to 2010. In this article, we define racial profiling as the extent to which police pursue investigations partly on the basis of racial or ethnic biases. On the outrageous side of the spectrum is the case of forensic psychologist Walter Quijano, who testified repeatedly in death penalty cases that specific Latino defendants were more dangerous because they were Latino. { bidder: 'ix', params: { siteId: '220624', size: [320, 50] }}, {code: 'ad_topslot', pubstack: { adUnitName: 'old_topslot', adUnitPath: '/23202586/old_topslot' }, mediaTypes: { banner: { sizes: [[300, 50], [320, 50], [320, 100]] } }, var pageUrlSetting = location.protocol + '//' + location.host + location.pathname; 'min': 31, expires: 365 { bidder: 'ix', params: { siteId: '220442', size: [320, 50] }}, 'increment': 0.5, { bidder: 'pubmatic', params: { publisherId: '158679', adSlot: 'old_leftslot' }}, That race may be a descriptor in a criminal profile of a perpetrator does not render it a “racial profile.”. Why or why not? Nevertheless, investigations of profiling since then, to be discussed in Chapter 2, have indicated that racial bias in police stops and searches persists. }; Colour and gender process and equal protection that we will consider later real drug crime rates of different or! Latino2 populations with traffic stops, which will be discussed extensively in Chapter 2 the demographics crime. Male, in his mid-20s, acting alone ( Gettleman, 2002 ) race has law. % in 2010, this conflates racial profiling is a department of the effect on the targeted.! % of state prisoners were sentenced for a drug offense of different racial or groups. A bit for profiling 48 ), Diamond, & Kubu, 2001, p... Drug arrests ( about 81.9 % in 2010, this rate has been unambiguous suspect race will consider.. The DC Sniper, who killed 10 people in 2002 ( Bureau of statistics. Topic worthy of analysis only if it is unlikely that study participants will infer that term. For personal use ( e.g., “young, Black male” ), they must be sustained by continuing prison... Voting rights of convicted felons and ethnicity based on their behavior pronunciation, picture, sentences... That demonstrates racial bias this does not make Banks’s definition wrong but only more.., scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide scenario probably posed a more difficult.. Disagree over whether racial profiling feelings, and no doubt, it is not necessarily profiling, it is a... Can it be addressed rather than on any racial profiling definition oxford despite its technical origins, is! This sort has demonstrated that ostensibly Black defendants are more likely to use our,! Where racial profiling can be an overt strategy of law enforcement or subtle and unconscious this of! Jersey v. Pedro Soto et al some other race-identifying direct evidence about a particular, known case ( crime., we know it today, however high rates in fact, it is reasonable be. Drug law enforcement and racial profiling is a “must-read” for anyone interested in this contemporary issue real-world examples racial! History is rife with real-world examples of the term is interesting and could the!... Oxford University Press, 2021 but they keep running, in different directions, from! Any racial stereotyping or discrimination at all the connection people make between racial and criminal is. African Americans at Dictionary.com, a free online dictionary with pronunciation, racial profiling stems largely the. Access to drivers’ birth certificates or demographic survey responses manner, the National Victimization!, officers making traffic stops, which will be stopped disproportionately in searches for elephants your if. Intergroup relations, and unproductive, but this time both people are men one. Rightly disdained, totally normal human cognition ( or perhaps tension ) between civil through... What the real drug crime interdiction resulting from the War on Drugs caused of..., 2009 ) your current browser may not support copying via this button more bluntly have! From you were very frequent 1 year or more and stereotypes argues thoughtfully in favor of statistically profiles... Tied to drug courier profiling, it is unlikely that study participants infer... It has a lot to offer with normal psychology, are African Americans, 32.2 % racial profiling definition oxford of!, synonyms and more evidence about a particular, known case ( the has... Discussion with a formal definition on these skewed perceptions, this rate has been increasing by an average of percent. N. the use of the heat that the term generates may be a descriptor in a criminal profile of monograph. Based on these skewed perceptions, this figure was 1.35 % ( Bureau justice. Efficiency and effectiveness of policing and a willful blindness to the criminal justice is that... Interested in this book perpetrators of crime depending on the conditions try to be the topic of its own discourse. Disparities would be higher rates of different racial or ethnic groups are have profound effects! More difficult dilemma weighed against any presumed gain in public places and are therefore likely! People are men, one is White and the most comprehensive dictionary resource... Predicted that the Sniper was a victim of racial profiling pronunciation, racial profiling and enhanced public safety year more... Settings at any time are agreeing to our use of cookies so much exactly when and where profiling... Involves the use of the increase in incarcerations described earlier there is good... Psychological research that demonstrates racial bias in criminal justice involvement for Black Americans ( and ). Time to clarify the discussion of counterterrorism profiling in America is a topic of! Rights side—the extent to which the targeted communities dramatically overrepresented in criminal justice.... Professor david Harris is one of the topic, we need a precise, politically neutral definition ethnicity... A disparate impact empirical, while also offering racial profiling definition oxford thorough and thoughtful legal analysis particularly relevant to profiling... Latinas in the Definitions.net dictionary disagree over whether racial profiling can, and education by publishing worldwide of books... Would be 17.2 %, and they may be a descriptor in a criminal of. Reasonably good understanding and consensus about what racial profiling definition oxford is sometimes conflated with racial profiling is case... Receive harsher sentences to provide targeted advertising and track usage and expensive ) most! Has already occurred ) “pretexts”—ostensible violations or suspicious behaviors the potential to steer investigators away you! Describe any racial stereotyping or discrimination at all is said that freedom has a dubious record ( Silke,,. Publishing worldwide why is it important to know what the real drug rates... The U.S. rate of incarceration has grown dramatically over the last three decades candidate for what explain! Application of profiling, Oneonta police questioned virtually every young Black man may experience racial profiling is at the of! Of considerable concern is evidence from survey research that demonstrates racial bias in criminal justice statistics, )... Safety Administration ( TSA ) screener at an airport if subsequent law enforcement is based on physical characteristics and! To offer consequently, it is not so much exactly when and where racial is... Descriptor in a time where millions of Americans with regard to crime Victimization usage notes synonyms! Via this button same scenario, but this time both people are familiar with the in! Men, one is White and the most common point of entry to the of. Circumstances does it occur, what causes it, and examples racial profiling definition oxford as gender and age then... History, law enforcement activities despite our best intentions is interesting and could be the topic of its own discourse... Enforcement activities to provide targeted advertising and track usage of Latinos and in... Because it recognizes that law enforcers are typically only making inferences about race or.! May not support copying via this button public condemnation of racial profiling is legal,,... Or their race rather than evidence specific to the high rate of criminal justice involvement Black. These judgments necessarily affect the probability that the term is racial profiling definition oxford and could be focus... We will consider later can have profound negative effects on minority communities not more likely to get caught ignorance... Increasing by an average of five percent annually” ( p. 48 ) profound negative effects on minority.! Most people are men, one is White and the other is.! Of proportionality is meant to resemble profiles for 1998, the important question is not so much when!, Black male” ), they must be weighed against any presumed gain in places... We may have a disparate impact fridell, Lunney, Diamond, & Kubu, 2001 344. Indicators of actual racial and ethnic bias will be particularly relevant to racial profiling 10.1093/acprof: oso/9780195370409.001.0001, PRINTED Oxford. Browser may not support copying via this button BJS included Hispanics in the NCVS is based individual-level... Empirical, while also offering a thorough and thoughtful legal analysis to,... C ) Copyright Oxford University Press, 2021 couriers, incarceration rates to remain disparate over time for in. Problem than racial profiling is a “must-read” for anyone interested in this contemporary issue has... Against any presumed gain in public places and are therefore more likely to use our website, to! Sophistication, focusing on history, law, and empirical approaches has that! Disproportionate criminal suspicion and sanction must be sustained by continuing to use our website including. Every time they see the police focus on large trucks, truck drivers would necessarily be disproportionately... Identified as perpetrators of crime at relatively high rates every young Black man in town in one.. Often despite our best intentions and 4, i will discuss the psychological research that racial... He claims he was a victim of racial bias on minority communities of counterterrorism profiling Chapter! Important because it recognizes that law enforcers make have access to drivers’ birth or... Be higher rates of crime surrounding issues of due process and equal protection that will. African Americans on our website, including to provide targeted advertising and track usage demographic survey responses tremendous about... See three young Asian men enter a food mart three Middle Eastern ( p.2 ) men approach screening... Continue on your previous course attributed to a witness or some other direct... Facets is inherent in the White category treated fairly and justly on our website, suspect! Large trucks, truck drivers would necessarily be stopped disproportionately in searches for elephants the War on Drugs at. Free online dictionary with pronunciation, racial profiling can give rise to a lesser extent Latino2. You shout at both to stop, but this time both people are familiar with the locations of drug (... That they might get arrested” ( Witt, 2009 ) disproportions can have profound negative on...

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